Malaysia is rapidly developing towards being an industrial country

Chapter 1Introduction1.0 BackgroundMalaysia is quickly developing towards being an industrial state. Many industries such as heavy and light industries, little and average industries and backyard industries have been turning in the last 10 old ages. The addition in industrial and agricultural activities has created a new demand in lodging, urbanisation, transit and medicine as the population addition. All these will lend to environmental jobs particularly pollution due to the accretion of risky chemicals such as heavy metals in environment. Environmental pollution has become a major issue that requires immediate action as it may effects human wellness. Pollution can take many signifiers such as H2O and air that we breathe. Urbanization in developed and development state, civilisation and industrialisation make the state of affairs of the environment worsened as such that there is no more safe topographic point to populate. From the chemical science lexicon, pollution can be define as an unwanted alteration in the physical, chemical, or biological features of the natural environment, brought about by adult male ‘s activities. It may be harmful to human or non living things. Basically there are two chief categories of pollutants which are biodegradable which means it can be rendered harmless by natural procedures and need hence do no lasting injury if adequately dispersed or treated such as sewerage. Another type is nonbiodegradable which can non be break uping by microbic activity. For illustration heavy metals suc h as lead, DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons used as pesticides, which finally accumulate in the environment and may be concentrated in nutrient ironss. Pollution besides can be describes as the debut of foreign substances into the biosphere. It may impact the dirt, rivers, seas, or the ambiance. The pollutants that are released from the anthropogenetic activities such as agricultural industries, unfastened combustion, solid waste disposal, sewerage intervention workss and transit produce risky and toxicant pollutants such as SO2, NOx, heavy metals and hydrocarbon compounds that effects non merely human but besides both workss and animate beings that can do decease. Some of these risky pollutants find their manner into the human system through the nutrient web. They may undergo biotransformation, metamorphosis and excreted without the hazard of toxicity depending on the chemical features of the compound and the dosage in human organic structure. However, some of the pollutants resist chemical and biological transmutation and accumulate in the tissues, including the nervousnesss, to do toxicity. The inauspicious effects of these pollu tants on the nervousnesss system give rise to neurotoxicity. Rana et al. , ( 2004 ) ; Katranitsas et al. , ( 2003 ) found that there is grounds that increasing exposure to toxic elements in Marine and tellurian beings is holding inauspicious toxicological effects. Therefore heavy metals pollution become serious issues that must been concerned. Unlike other pollutants such as crude oil hydrocarbons and domestic and municipal litter which may visibly construct up in the environment, hint metals in the environment may roll up unnoticed to toxic degrees. By and large, human wellness jobs associated with hint metal taint have been well-highlighted in the literature. In malice of the comparatively low degree of industrial activity in less developed parts there is however a high potency of toxic heavy metal pollution. The distribution of metals in the environment is a consequence of natural procedures ( vents, eroding, spring H2O, bacterial activity ) and anthropogenetic activities ( fossil fuel burning, industrial and agricultural procedures ) ( Florea and Busselberg, 2006 ) . Heavy metals such as arsenic lead, Cu, Cd, or Zn are released from the Earth ‘s crust into the environment through anthropogenetic beginnings such as non-ferrous metal industry or non-renewable energy ingestion. These substances can do major harm to human wellness or to ecosystem stableness even at low concentrations in dirts. To get the better of this issue, many states have taken legion enterprises particularly the developed state. For illustration, in 2001 the European Union council signed the 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution on Heavy Metals ( Europa, 2007 ) . Therefore there are many methods to measure and measure the presence of these substances. One of them is biological used. The application of biological signifiers as the indexs is the best ways to measure the environmental status. Harmonizing to ( Szczepaniak and Biziuk, 2003 ; Bargagli, 1998 ) , in order to observe, measure and minimise the effects, there has been an accent in the usage of natural bioindicators to supervise atmospheric quality in both urban and rural environments. Examples of bioindicators are lichens, fish, and mosses. One of the bioindicators that can be used is lichens. Lichens are widely known as an first-class index to measure our environment. Lichens drama importance functions to forest communities. Lichens represent a rare beginning of readily digestible nutrient at all times of twelvemonth and in diverse environments due to their ability to last in utmost clime status. More by and large, lichens act as innovator species in waste or disturbed environments ; their growing on stone surfaces is one of the primary phases of dirt formation in such environments ( Brakenhielm, 1998 ; Cooper, 1953 in Dawson, 2008 ) . Lichens are little, non-vascular workss dwelling of a fungus and an alga turning together in one tissue. Normally lichens are found on the bark of trees, or the caribou lichens turning on the land, but many other species grow on stones, fencings, roofs, gravestones, and other objects. The feature of lichen that sensitive to the alterations of the surrounding makes them as an first-class bioindicators and biomonitors for air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide pollution, since they derive their H2O and indispensable foods chiefly from the ambiance instead than from the dirt. A batch of surveies towards lichens had been done related to pollution particularly air pollution in most Europen states and North America Asia. During the period 1973-1988, about 1500 documents were published on the effects of air pollution on lichens Richardson ( 1988 ) cited in Ahmadjian ( 1993 ) , and many general reappraisals of lichens and air pollution have been compiled ( Ahmadjian, 1993 ) . The statute law about air quality that they made has been base on ballss through out the states particularly in developing states where air pollution is bad. In Malaysia, several surveies has been conducted ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) to find the heavy metals pollution degree utilizing lichen at difference topographic points. From the research, they found out that the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals vary from each species. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to r oll up metals ( Burton, 1986 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all year-round. Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) . The benefits of utilizing lichens as quantitative biological proctors of air metal deposition comparison to conventional air trying techniques rise from that lichens are present in most tellurian home grounds, are perennial, cheap and easy reproduced ( Baffi et al. , 2002 ) .1.1 Problem statementNowadays the degree of heavy metals in the environment increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours as the universe becomes much more developed. This is because the uncontrolled released of heavy metals leads to the pollution due to the inordinate anthropogenetic activities. The uninterrupted burden of heavy metals into inland and coastal H2O make the st ate of affairs worsens. Anthropogenetic activities such as excavation, smelting and agribusiness have locally increased the degrees of heavy metals such as Cd ( Cd ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , lead ( Pb ) , arsenic ( As ) and nickel ( Ni ) in dirt up to unsafe degrees for workss, animate beings and human existences. Although with the wood around us, the position of heavy metals level rather important as the consequence of human day-to-day activities, heavy population country near the wood and besides an increasing of the transit. These activities give inauspicious consequence to the life being as they enter into the environment. Other than that the ordinances provided by Malayan authorities which is the Environmental Quality Act 1974 by Department of Environment, still non to the full been forced due to the engagement other parties such as local authorization to take action when the degree of pollutants exceed the standard given particularly in coastal country. This is due to the dif ferent section have different duties. Nevertheless these parties can be work together to make a better life. Meanwhile due to the deficiency of surveies towards the lichens in our state, the informations obtained can assist the local authorization in determination devising procedure therefore maintained the quality. Besides that, it would assist to do an appraisal about the environmental status and possibly to better environmental quality position.1.2 ObjectiveThis survey was carried out in order to accomplish as the followerss:To quantify the heavy metals present in lichens.To measure the degree of heavy metals in lichens.To set up the correlativity of heavy metals pollutants in lichens with the environing environment.1.3 Significant of surveyBy cognizing that different species has different sensitiveness towards heavy metals, it allow breaking understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards heavy metals at environing environment. The presence or absences of species in cou ntries can give better understanding about the sensitiveness of lichens towards the pollutants. The information obtained besides can be used to measure the toxicology effects non merely to the lichens but besides on homo. Heavy metals can really toxic if the degree of the pollutants higher than the limited given. The informations besides can make the distribution forms of lichens at that topographic point. The pollution degree and position topographic point besides can be determined. This survey provides a mention record for carry oning farther biomonitoring surveies.1.4 Thesis organisationThe finding of heavy metals in lichens as bioindicators is a thesis based on old research in different trying location. Overall, this thesis consists of five chapters which are to help in understanding and easiness to form through authorship procedure. The chapters in this thesis have been forming as follows: Chapter 2 by and large discuss about the used on lichens as bioindicators. In this chapter, it besides has detailed account on the morphology of lichens that play of import function in accumulate heavy metals. It besides include the history on the scientific research on lichens, the important function on absorb the heavy metals and the effects of air pollution and metal pollution towards lichens. Chapter 3 is more concentrating on research methodological analysis. In this portion, it is divided into three parts which are the description on country of survey, trying aggregation and in conclusion laboratory analysis which is the process to find heavy metals utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometer ( ICP-MS ) . Chapter 4 is concentrating on the consequences obtained and treatment. In this chapter, it discuss about the informations obtained after analyze by ICP-MS. It besides include the statistical tools to analyse the preciseness of the informations obtain in order to hold a good information. It besides states the consequences and the informations reading between the samples. Chapter 5 is the last chapter which is the decision. In this portion, it concludes for the whole chapter in the thesis. It related on the aim of the survey including the recommendation to better the research on lichens.Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 BioindicatorsBioindicators, besides known as biomarkers, are tools that used in ecology, physiology, environmental microbiology and other subjects, to observe strain and other environmental conditions environing beings. USEPA stated that biological index species are alone environmental indexs as they offer a signal of the biological status in a watershed as they reveal the pollution position from clip to clip. The presence of this species can give an early warning of pollution or debasement in an ecosystem every bit good as aid prolong critical resources. Bioindicators differ from biomonitoring. Bioindicators are really groups or types of biological resources that can be used for designation and qualitative finding of homo generated enviro nmental factors Tonneijk and Posthumus ( 1987 ) cited in Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) while biomonitors are being chiefly used for the quatitative finding of and can be classified as being sensitive or accumulative ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Bioindicators are divided into two types. First, accretion indexs which are shop pollutants without any apparent alterations in their metamorphosis. Another one is response indexs which is react with cell alterations or seeable symptoms of harm when taking up even little sums of risky substances. The application of bioindicators in measuring air pollution is much cheaper compared with other methods as Fuga et al. , ( 2008 ) noted that beside low cost, they besides easy for sampling, and the possibility of supervising broad countries. The application of workss as bioindicators has been conducted for many old ages to observe environmental alterations ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Harmonizing to Chandra and Sinha ( 2000 ) workss are extremely effectual and sensitive tools for finding and foretelling environmental emphasiss. Mosss, lichens and Fungis are the illustrations type of workss that normally used to bespeak the environmental alterations. However a lichen species was more resilient than a moss species in two exposure experiments look intoing hint metal consumption affecting grafts into urban environments ( Tretiach et al. , 2007 ) .2.2 LichensLichens consists of a fungus, known as the mycobiont, and a photosynthetic being, a green alga or blue-green algae species, the photobiont. Both of them are symbiosis as they rely each other where the algae and fungi give benefits each other ( Hawksworth and Rose, 1976 ) . The symbiotic action between the mycobiont ( -s ) and the photobiont ( -s ) , signifier thallus which the organic structure of lichens through a procedure of symbiogenesis ( Margulis and Barreno, 2003 ) are stable â€Å"micro-ecosystems† as a consequence mutualism procedure make these non-linear belongingss to be peculiarly effectual ‘early warning indexs ‘ of alterations dues to the impact of worlds on ecosystems ( Barreno, 2003 ) . Poikolainen ( 2004 ) stated that the fungous constituent normally an Ascomycetes fungus, and a green alga ( Chlorophyceae ) and/or bluish green alga ( Cyanobacteriae ) is the algal constituent. About 19 % of all Fungis are lichenized ( Lutzoni et al. , 2001 ; Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ) . More than 98 % of lichenized fungous species belong to phylum Ascomycota, others are from orders of phylum Basidiomycota and some to Mitosporic Fungi ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ; Tehler, 1996 ) . Most of the photobiont spouse is form by green alga ( Chlorophyta ; Lewis and McCourt, 2004 ) , merely approximately 10 % with blue-green algae, and 3 % with both green alga and blue-green algae ( Hawksworth et al. , 1995 ; Honegger, 1996 ) . The fungous constituent is responsible for taking up H2O and minerals, and the algal constituent, which grows in the center of the fungous mycelia, for photosynthesis in order to feed both spouses as it has chlorophyll that is able to devour sunshine, produce indispensable foods. Most lichen species obtain their foods from moisture and dry deposition ( Garty, 1993 ) . Some mycobionts can besides alter their photosynthesizing spouse from green alga to cyanobacterium and frailty versa and this leads to alterations in thallus morphology ( Oksanen, 2006 ) . This behaviour was suggested to be due to an environmental version and related to ecological compatibility of the photobiont ( Honegger, 1996 ; Stenroos et Al, 2003 ) . The categorization of lichens depends on thallus construction. There are three growing signifiers of lichens which are Crustose ( crusty ) , foliaceous ( leafy ) and fructicose ( shrubby ) ( Swinscow and Krog, 1988 ) . Growth form irregular the grade of physical contact and orientation of the lichen with its substrate every bit good as the sum of uninterrupted surface country exposed to airborne deposition therefore it should hold a direct impact on both the interception and consumption of airborne and substrate available elements by lichens ( Samuel et al, 2002 ) . Basically lichens can be found in tellurian home grounds, although a few can last invariably below the surface of H2O, such as Peltigera hydrothyria. They can populate on bark ( epiphytic ) , stones ( epilithic ) , or dirt ( terricolous ) and can even turn within the upper part of stones ( endolithic ) , peculiarly in exposed limestones and sandstones. In the Torrid Zones they can besides colonise foliages ( foliicolous ) ( Nash, 2008 ) . Lichens frequently grow in home grounds with utmost visible radiation, waterlessness, or temperature, which are less favourable or unsuitable for higher workss ( Vrablikova et al. , 2006 ) . Although lichens are attached to the bark or perforate a short distance, they are non parasite which is non come ining the inner bark where nutrient is transported, and therefore do non devour the tree of nutriment. Lichens depend on mineral foods from moisture and dry deposition on the works surface in the signifier of soluble salts and atoms, for their growing and metamorphosis ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Lichens can widen the utmost status, slow-growing, beings that maintain a reasonably unvarying morphology in clip and are extremely dependent on the environing for foods ( Loppi and Pirintsos, 2003 ) . Several research workers such as Chiarenzelli et Al. ( 1997 ) have studied the accretion of heavy metals in Arctic tundra ecosystem at the Otter Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada.2.2 Lichens as bioindicatorsSince lichens are the most widely used biomonitors in tellurian environments ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) , therefore they can observe and supervise a tonss of pollutants such as SO2, HF, metals, high N deposition, organic pollutants and radionuclides. Most surveies utilizing lichens as index species of air pollution peculiarly acerb rain, fertilisers, sulfur and N oxides, and metals, has been documented in 1000s of scientific documents ( Henderson, 2000 ) . Hawksworth and Rose ( 1976 ) reported that in the early 1860 ‘s lichens were recognized as possible indexs of air pollution in Britain and Europe. Since so, lichens have played outstanding functions in air pollution surveies throughout the universe because of their sensitiveness to different gaseous pollutants, peculiarly sulfur dioxide. More than a century ago William Nylander ( 1866 ) , a European scientist, found that lichens in the countryside around Paris were non found inside the metropolis. He investigated the state of affairs and found out that the lichens had been quickly decreasing, killed by pollutants. Since of those findings, an extended research have been conducted in many countries ( Barkman, 1958 ; De Wit, 1976 ; Hawksworth, 1971 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Other than that, several researches have studied the relationship between lichens and hint elements in different geographic country ( Loppi and Bonini, 2000 ; Garty, 2001 ; Carreras and Pignata, 2002 ; Yenisoy-Karakas and Tuncel, 2004 ; Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ; Bergamaschi et al. , 2004 ) . Hundreds of surveies have been published on the effects of sulfur dioxide, N compounds, ozone, heavy metals and other atmospheric pollutants on the morphology and physiology of lichens since the 1950 ‘s ( Richardson, 1992 ; Garty, 2000 ) . These surveies have chiefly been experimental. Lichens have besides been employed among other things as accretion indexs of heavy metals ( Freitas, 1994 ) every bit good as sulfur and N compounds ( Sochting, 1995 ) derived from industrial activities and power production in a infinite figure of surveies carried out in the milieus of emanation beginnings. Therefore research related to the pollution based on lichen as an indexs being used widely. This is because there were certain features on lichens that make them an first-class bioindicators for finding the presence of the primary pollutants such as sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , nitrogen dioxide ( NO2 ) , fluoride, acerb precipitation, ozone and metals ( Hutchinson et al. , 1996 ) . Several regional and even national studies have been carried out on the relationship between the happening of epiphytic lichen and atmospheric pollutants ( Poikolainen et al. , 2000 ) . Other than that, Soderstrom ( 1988 ) , Lesica et al. , ( 1991 ) , Esseen et al. , ( 1997 ) cited in Humphrey et al. , ( 2002 ) supported that epiphytic nonvascular plants and lichens are of import constituents of biological diverseness in natural boreal and temperate woods. Most of species of lichen have a broad geographical distribution, which allows for a survey of pollution covering broad countries and its high capacity to roll up metals Burton ( 1986 ) cited in Mokhtar et al. , ( 2006 ) . Hutchinson et al. , ( 1996 ) stated that lichens do non hold seasonal fluctuations and therefore accretion of pollutants can happen all old ages. They cover 8 % of the land surface, including some of the most utmost environments on Earth Larson ( 1987 ) cited in Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) . Lichens and mosses normally have considerable length of service, which led to their usage as long-run planimeters of atmospheric deposition ( Sloof, 1993 ) . Lichens are really sensitive to break in naturality ensuing from air pollutants, chiefly sulfur dioxide and heavy metals ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) . Their alone characteristic which is do non hold outer impermeable bed of tissue to forestall gases and atoms that affect their metamorphosis. This characteristic besides indicate that little atoms in the ambiance can be absorbed do them most of import bioindicator ( Bennet, 2006 ) . Besides that, because of the failing of its cuticles enables moist air to be absorbed through its surface. Metallic elements which are absorbed along with the moist air are dissolved in it ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . Trace metals from air borne atoms can be absorbed by lichen and so roll up and saturated the metals. This is because their construction and anatomy ( Hutchinson et al, 1996 ) do them able to uptake the pollutants. The diminishing of some lichen diverseness due to the increasing in air pollution and environmental emphasis ( Svoboda, 2010 ) indicate that the environmental status in that part is polluted. Pollution signifiers such as forest atomization ( Fritz et al. , 2008 ; Hedenas and Ericson, 2008 ; Ranius et al. , 2008 ) give premium public-service corporation as indexs of naturalist.2.3 Biological public presentationLichens can be considered and analyzed in footings of their morphology, histology, ecology and physiology, in short or long-run periods of clip ( Ahmadjian and Hale, 1973 ) . Several researches Garty et al. , ( 1998 ) has been studied on the lichen ‘s biological public presentation such as measurings on growing rate, productiveness, generative capacity, malformation, stain, chlorophyll content, membrane unity, respiratory activity, ionic content, geographical happening, substrate-related distributional restrictions, or H2O dealingss. Habitat debasement and loss ( Groom et al. , 2006 ) , habitat atomization ( Bergamini et al. , 2005 ) , overuse ( Upreti et al. , 2005 ) , species invasions ( La Greca and Stutzman, 2006 ) , and clime alteration is the chief menaces to the biodiversity of lichens. For illustration, overbrowsing of the Cladonia heath by increasing caribou populations in Scandinavia and Alaska has long been recognised as an of import factor doing the terrible diminution of lichens, which might go a serious job in caribou farming ( Suominen and Olfosson, 2000 ) . Climate alteration is likely to hold dramatic effects on distribution and copiousness of lichen populations ( Ellis and Coppins, 2007 ; Ellis et al. , 2007 ) . Yet another menace which is specific to lichens and other poikilohydric cryptogams is air pollution, which has led to the terrible diminution of legion species throughout Central Europe ( Nimis et al. , 2002 ) . The construction and features of lichens play of import function as they served as the early warning to the pollution. Otnyukova et Al. ( 2007 ) identifies a relationship between deposition, unnatural morphology in Usnea and tissue chemical science, supplying an early indicant of forest diminution. However the biological grading, the reading of â€Å" symptom function † is frequently instead hard Seaward ( 1976 ) cited in Wolterbeek et al. , ( 2003 ) . Due to the addition in size may reflect an addition in generative capacity but may besides merely show an abnormalcy of form or signifier of the cardinal parts of the thallus. Another ground is the stain might be associated to the general deteriorate but besides reflect hurts from other beginnings such as insect, diseases or chemical sprays. Last but non least, alterations in the distribution of species may reflect alterations in air pollution ( Barkman, 1958 ; De Wit, 1976 ; Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 cited in Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) , but may besides be associated to other environmental parametric quantities ( Henderson-Sellers and Seaward, 1979 ) , such as alterations in humidness or alterations in the handiness of preferent substrates ( De Wit, 1976 ; Manning and Feder, 1980 ) .2.4 Heavy metalsDetermining concentrations of heavy metals in the environment is an of import portion of understanding biochemical procedures and grade of ecosystem wellness ( Schilling and Lehman, 2002 ) . Harmonizing to USEPA in Private Drinking Water Wells, heavy metals can be define as metallic elements with high denseness, such as, quicksilver Cr Cd, arsenic, and lead. Even at low degrees these metals can damage living things. Once heavy metals get into the environment, whether in little or big measures, they can non be wholly e liminated. They can non to interrupt down or biodegrade and be given to construct up in workss, animate beings, and people doing wellness concerns. This statement supported by other research workers such as Lenntech ( 2004 ) cited in Duruibe et al. , ( 2007 ) which stated that any heavy metal is toxic or toxicant even at low concentration. However, their denseness is non the most concerns features to be considered but their chemical belongingss ( Duruibe et al. , 2007 ) as they can do important impact to the environment. ( Dembitsky, 2003 ) reported that these toxic substances contribute to a assortment of toxic effects on life beings by nutrient concatenation as they enter into environment.2.5 Beginning of metal pollutionHeavy metals occur in two ways ; of course or geological and anthropogenetic activities such as industrial wastewaters, fuel production, excavation, smelting procedures, military operations, use of agricultural chemicals, small-scale industries ( including battery production, metal merchandises, metal smelting and overseas telegram coating industries ) , brick kilns and coal burning ( Zhen-Guo et al. , 2002 ) . This statement supported by Dembitsky ( 2003 ) which stated that these tracts are beginnings of heavy metal taint. Other than that Zhang et Al. ( 2009 ) noted that in nature, heavy metals are widely distributed in such ways such as H2O, dirt, air and assorted signifiers of beings at low concentration. Harmonizing to fairfaxcounty ( 2005 ) nowadays roadways and cars are considered to be one of the largest beginnings of heavy metals. The most common heavy metals released from route travel are zinc, Cu, and lead, and at least 90 of the entire metals in route overflow. However lead concentrations, systematically have been diminishing since leaded gasolene was stopped. Other than that, undistinguished sums of other metals, such as Ni and Cd, are besides found in route overflow and fumes.2.6 Metallic elements toxicityPassage metals are required by workss ( Akbulut et al.,2008 ; Sofuoglu, et al.,2008 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) stated that the elements can be classified into macronutrients or micronutrients and as indispensable and non-essential. Some metals ; Co ( Co ) , Cu ( Cu ) , Cr ( Cr ) , and Ni ( Ni ) are really necessary for human in highly little sums ( Zevenhoven and Kilpinen, 2001 ) . However some elements for illustration quicksilver ( Hg ) , Cd ( Cd ) , lead ( Pb ) , Cr ( Cr ) and arsenic ( As ) , can do pollution and interrupt the environment when their accretions exceed certain degrees even at low concentration ( Kennish, 1992 ) . Harmonizing to Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) classified that â€Å"essential† metals which have benefits and of course found are ( Ca, Co, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Se, V and Zn ) but can be toxic when inordinate while â€Å"non essential† metals which are ( Al, As, Au, Cd, Cr, Hg, Pb, Pd, Pt, Sb, Te, Tl and U ) that can be extremely toxic and can do serious wellness harm when inordinate consumption. Information given by Bowen ( 1979 ) cited in Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) and Markert ( 1996 ) can be utilize for farther general and more elaborate informations on metal essentialness, happening in dirts and workss, toxicity and uptake. Plants have the ability to roll up indispensable metals in different concentration for growing and development ( Jadia and Fulekar, 2009 ) . However workss besides tend to roll up the non-essential metals which have no known biological map ( Djingova and Kuleff, 2000 ) . Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) found that because of the works ‘s me tabolically controlled care of needed degrees of indispensable elements, lichens may demo instead high base-line concentrations for particularly the indispensable elements under low atmospheric handiness conditions. Because of their features which is can non to be brake down, it can do direct toxicity by damaging cell construction ( due to oxidative emphasis caused by reactive O species ) and suppress a figure of cytoplasmatic enzymes when the accretion inside works cells above threshold or optimum degree ( Assche and Clijsters, 1990 ) . Furthermore, it can do indirect toxic effects by replacing indispensable foods at cation exchange sites in workss ( Taiz and Zeiger, 2002 ) . Baker ( 1981 ) cited in Jadia and Fulekar ( 2009 ) suggested, that some workss have evolved to digest the presence of big sums of metals in their environment by the undermentioned three ways ; exclution, inclution and bioaccumulation.2.7 Lichens and surplus of heavy metalsPermeability of the plasma membrane of lichens may change by metals, taking to leakage of ions like K and other solutes ( Grunsveld and Clijsters, 1994 ) . Biomonitors by lichens at specific country has failing as their responses could be changing from th ose observed in the research lab. This is due to the fact that the lichens are exposed non merely to a individual pollutant but to other mixtures of pollutants which are besides affected by different meteoric conditions ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . Although biomonitoring plan on atmospheric heavy metals and advancement in this field has been already reviewed throughout the universe ( Garty, 2001 ; Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) but in the last few old ages at that place has been researched focused on the physiological and biochemical effects of heavy metal accretion in lichens ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . There are many surveies has been documented sing the effectivity of lichens in stoping atoms non merely from the ambiance but besides from substrate ( Loppi et al. , 1999 ; Pirintsos et al. , 2006 ) . These atoms may be precipitated onto the lichen surface or trapped in the intercellular infinites of the myelin ( Garty et al. , 1979 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) and remain unchanged for a long period. Lichen can be harm caused by the presence of other gaseous or particulate pollutants in the environment which can disrupt the physiological procedures involved in the accretion of heavy metals ( Carreras et al. , 2005 ) . However Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) found that because of the atoms deposited and remain unchanged, lichens can retain and accretion of heavy metals in measures that exceed their physiological demands. Several surveies have been conducted on the accretion of heavy metals in many different species ( Sawidis et al. , 1995 ; Monaci et al. , 1997 ; Scerbo et al. , 1999 ; Loppi et al. , 2002 ) . Some common species such as genera Acarospora, Aspicilia, Lecanora, Lecidea, Porpidia, Rhizocarpon or Tremolecia ( Purvis and Halls, 1996 ; Backor and Fahselt, 2004 ) associated with heavy metal-rich substrates can digest metals and occur in both contaminated and uncontaminated countries. Other species, nevertheless, are restricted and have a deficiency connexion in distribution reflecting the handiness of suited sites ( Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) .2.7 Accretion of heavy metalsLichens tend to roll up metals from airborne atoms or from dissolved and suspended stuff ( Wolterbeek et al.,2003 ) . In general, five mechanisms have been put frontward with respect to the soaking up of metals in lichens ; ion exchange, electrolyte sorption, intracellular soaking up, entrapment of atoms that contain metals, extracellular and hydrolysis as indicated by uptake surveies with integral lichens ( Richardson, 1995 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is good documented ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Lichen tissue analysis likely arose from physiological probes into the consequence of heavy metals on lichen metamorphosis. Experimental work over the period from 1970-1985 by a group of lichen physiological ecologists, chiefly based at Laurentian University in Sudbury, determined the precise relationship between elemental consumption, storage and lichen metamorphosis ( Richardson and Nieboer, 1983 ; Richardson and Puckett, 1973 ) . The function of lichens as collector the heavy metals of assorted hint elements in atmospheric deposition, and tissue analyses have efficaciously characterized their spacial and temporal deposition forms has been studied by several research workers such as ( Garty, 2001 ; Walker et al. , 2003 ) . Harmonizing to Baker ( 1983 ) cited in Contti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) there are many factors that influence the accretion of metals of workss such as the handiness of elements, the features of workss such as type of reproduction. Therefore, the grade of tolerance to heavy metals is characteristic of each lichen species ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . Neiboer et Al. ( 1976 ) indicated a big scope in the elemental consumption of lichens that varied harmonizing to elemental features of the substrate and environmental factors, notably a tenfold addition in metals in relation to distance from smelters. Metallic elements and sulfur dioxide behave otherwise and are expected to hold differing radioactive dust forms ; nevertheless Rossbach et Al. ( 1999 ) demonstrated a additive correlativity between the element concentration in lichen stuff and the reciprocal of the distance from the emanation beginnings. However, an equal consideration of topography, substrate and meteoric conditions must b e considered to explicate fluctuation. Different species have different ability to absorb considerable sums of heavy metals ( Mokhtar et al. , 2006 ) . For illustration Pawlik-Skowronska et Al. ( 2006 ) found that apothecia of Lecanora polytropa accumulated Cu up to 1.3 % ( d.m. ) , about 50 % of which was in an exchangeable signifier. Other than that a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when collected from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 ; Gough et al. , 1988 ; Lawrey and Hale, 1981 cited in Clair et al. , 2002 ) . Assorted analytical techniques have been attempted by many research workers to increase cognition on the bonding procedure which is interaction between lichen and metal. One of them is electron paramagnetic resonance. Although Conti and Cecchetti ( 2001 ) reported that there was missing cognition in understanding the full procedure that responsible in the accretion, but there were new attack late been introduced which is by utilizing microcalorimetric technique with the purpose of obtaining enthalpic measuring informations ( Antonelli et al. , 1998 ) . As a consequence the tendency established a good correlativity between the metal bond and heat content values in metal consumption. For illustration tendency for Evernia Prunastri Pb & gt ; & gt ; Zn & gt ; Cd? Cu? Cr ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . The algal spouse has been reported to respond more sensitively e.g. , to acidic deposition and heavy metals, and to demo changing accretion of metals depending on the sourness of precipitation ( Tarhanen et al. , 1999 ) . Sporadic dehydration of lichens may besides hold an consequence on the accretion and soaking up of elements ( Puckett, 1988 ) . After a dry period, rainfall may ensue in appreciable rinsing off of atoms and the exchange of cations bound on negatively charged exchange sites on the cell walls and plasma membranes of the cells ( Bargagli, 1998 ) . The rapid, exchangeable procedure of metal adhering to cell walls in metal consumption by lichens has been extensively studied in the research lab ( Brown, 1976 ; Goyal and Seaward, 1982 ; Nieboer and Richardson, 1981 ; Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Wolterbeek et al. , 2003 ) . Several surveies have been conducted to mensurate the deposition of atmospheric in lichen. France and Coquery ( 1996 ) , for illustration measured deposition of atmospheric lead and compared them to lichen thalline contents from the high Arctic utilizing flameless atomic surface assimilation spectrophotometry. They found that the concentration of 2 ug g-1 dry weights to be the lowest degree found in lichen and established a latitudinal gradient in lead, with a clear form in diminishing Pb concentrations in lichens with increasing latitude throughout Canada. Simple to complex methods for finding the concentration of ions in lichen tissue have been developed for decennaries and it is widely accepted that tissue concentrations in most lichen species shows a precise relationship with deposition of particulate and ambient air concentrations of gaseous pollutants ( Seaward, 1992 ) . Entrapment of atoms contains metals which known as airborne pollutants accumulate in lichens by both moistures and dry deposition ( Nash, 1996 ) . Wet deposition involves any sort of precipitation event that washes airborne aerosols and particles out of the air, while dry deposition involves the settling out of airborne gases or atoms due to the increasing influence of gravitation with diminishing air current velocity ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Another beginning of elements such as dirt atoms deposited by windblown on lichen thalli may be accumulated by some lichens. Smaller deposited atoms may go trapped in the lichen thalli of species with big intercellular infin ites ( Collins and Farrar, 1978 cited in Clair et al. , 2002. However, when the concentration of metals is high plenty to go toxic, they themselves cause harm to the lichen thalli. As a consequence, several physiological mechanisms of response to air pollutants in lichens are altered, and therefore alter their original sensitiveness or tolerance to gaseous compounds like SO2, NOx, and O3 ( Carreras and Pignata, 2007 ) . These compounds affect the status of lichens and therefore cut down the capacity of lichens to roll up and absorb elements from the ambiance. Heavy metals have besides been found to impact e.g. , the permeableness of the cell membranes of lichens ( Tarhanen et al. , 1996 ) .2.8 Factors considerationHeavy metal content in lichen thallus tends to jump over clip in stages of accretion and subsequent release. Szczepaniak and Biziuk ( 2003 ) listed the factors that influence the metal soaking up in lichens which are acerb precipitation, geographical fluctuations such as height, temporal alterations for illustration seasonal fluctuati ons, dirt dust, local pollution beginnings, long-range conveyance. Climatic factors likely play of import function in the bioaccumulation of heavy metals, even if this yet ill-defined. Aptroot and new wave Herk ( 2007 ) provide increasing grounds that clime alteration is an of import factor, partially based on grounds from the algal spouse, much neglected in about all surveies, even though it is normally most sensitive to pollutants. The way in which the pollutants are transported by wind way is most surely cardinal in finding their chief radioactive dust point ( Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Accretion of heavy metals in lichens is a dynamic procedure. Probe on the effects of extra metals showed that lichens soaked into metal solutions accumulated metals rapidly within a few hours. Observation on some metals such as Cu showed maximal accretion after 3- 6 H ( Monnet et al. , 2006 ) . In organ transplant surveies indicated that most lichens respond to alterations in atmospheric heavy metals within a few months. It took 2-5 old ages to measure the elements in lichen thalli ( Walther et al. , 1990 ) . Although it expected that the heavy metal content of lichens would increase as the clip addition, but the state of affairs is truly much more complicated. Surveies from Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) showed that contents of several elements in transplanted lichens go up and down during the survey period. This is because the contents of these elements are, at least partially, controlled by physiological procedures and turnover mechanisms ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore, metals can be removed by rainwater which remove polluting atoms on the thallus surface ( Brown and Brown, 1991 ) ensuing in lower content during periods of rain and higher content in the dry season. Other than that, the water-leachable fraction ( deposited plus intercellular ) is by and large assumed to stand for chiefly metals originated from dry deposition, and the elements present in leachates show distinguishable temporal forms with concentrations being normally higher in summer than in winter ( Boonpragob and Nash, 1990 ) . However, because lichens are more active metabolically when moisture, winter months are suited to growing and mineral consumption ( Nash and Gries, 1995 ) . Not merely the water-leachable fraction contributes the uneven of the concentration, rainfall besides amply contributes to the entire component content of lichens ( Knops et al. , 1991 ) . Both of the procedure could bring forth temporal differences in metal contents in malice of changeless pollution tonss, nevertheless the concentrations in lichen thalli chiefly varies harmonizing to sums of incident pollutants. These may bring forth a high sum of biological emphasis, therefore alter element consump tion ( Bergamaschi et al. , 2007 ) . Besides that, the clip exposure of lichens transplanted into contaminated countries besides takes a count in the accretion of elements procedure. This is because it influences the verve of thalli and accordingly the active procedures of element consumption. Garty ( 2001 ) noted that in order to find the minimum exposure required to bring forth important alteration, the critical period of exposure remains unknown particularly in the absence of time-studies. Short exposure times of 1-3 months are by and large sufficient to impact transplanted lichens. When the exposure is longer, they become saturated with the elements, lose biomass, surface constructions change and alter physiological public presentation ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . Other factors are the constructions of lichen itself influence the metal consumption. Their physical features such a surface construction, adhesion and water-holding capacity of thalli besides affect metal accretion in lichens ( Brown and Beckett, 1985 ) . Richardson ( 1995 ) observed that pores and holes on the cerebral mantle, which could pin down atoms or let them to come in inside the thallus, in some species may be sealed by polymers, likely including lichenins and isolichenins. In contaminated countries, the concentration of hint component in the peripheral ( younger ) of foliaceous lichens may be lower than cardinal ( older ) portion of the thallus because of the greater exposure times experienced ( Bargagli et al. , 1987 cited in Backor and Loppi, 2009 ) . This comparing has been studied by ( Loppi et al. , 1997 ) , where they used Flavoparmelia caperata thalli from an uncontaminated country of cardinal Italy. They found out that there was extremely variable and contents of s everal elements ( As, Cr, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Sb ) were similar. Backor and Loppi ( 2009 ) suggested that the concentration in cardinal thallus parts were higher because the elements are trapped in the myelin. The indispensable elements for metamorphosis which is Co, Cu, Mo, and Zn were concentrated in the peripheral parts which are the metabolic activities are most active. This suggests that metals can travel from one portion of the thallus to another. However a few surveies have shown that foliaceous species by and large had higher component tonss than shrubby species when collected from the same site ( Glenn et al. , 1995 ) Altitude seems play of import function for some elements. Study has been done on hypogymnia physodesof on lead ( Pb ) and Cd ( Cd ) concentration ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . He found that concentration of Pb and Cd addition as the height increase up to 900-1100 m. at higher height, Cd concentration tend to diminish. Therefore, this species of lichen is suited to measure the metals uptake in position of its high-tolerance capacities ( Jeran et al. , 1996 ) . The ground for this is likely because of the different sum of precipitation, and deposition of more soluble elements ( Kral et al. , 1989 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Another factor is related to the species of lichen. Wolterbeek et Al. ( 2003 ) noted that different species contain changing sums of metals even at the same palce. It is obvious that the sum of metal contained by lichen is species-dependent. Upreti and Pandey ( 1994 ) described this statement by made comparing between Umbilicaria decussata and U. aprina in Antarctica. From the consequence, they found out that the lichen Umbilicaria decussata collected contained more Pb and Fe than U. aprina in the same site. This difference was attributed to the thin thallus of U. decussata which makes for a high ratio of surface country to dry weight as compared with U. aprina. Temporal alterations such as season fluctuation besides contribute to the rate of metal consumption. Basically high concentration of heavy metals found in thallus after summer twenty-four hours. This is due to the increased hydration that consequences from autumn rainfall ( Nieboer et al. , 1978 cited in Conti and Cecchetti, 2001 ) . Loppi et Al. ( 1997 ) studied the hint component content in Mediterranean clime. As the accretion non being washout, they found out that it is strongly influenced by the dirt dust taint. On a smaller graduated table, lichens turning on stray trees contain higher sums of heavy metal-rich atoms than those in heavy tree bases. Even in single trees, heavy metal accretion depends on the extent of stemflow on a peculiar side and is normally higher close land degree ( Bargagli and Mikhailova, 2002 ) . In general, much polluted countries have merely really tolerant species ; clean air-areas have a much higher natural diverseness of lichens including several that are highly sensitive to little measures of sulfur dioxide.Chapter 3Methodology2.1 ApparatusThe setup that being used for carry oning the analysis are beaker ( 250 milliliter ) , analytical balance, 0.45  µm glass fibre filter paper, volumetric flask ( 50 milliliter ) , pipette ( 10ml ) , forceps, Teflon vas, micro-cook digestion system ETHOS 1 Milestone, and extractor tubing ( 15 milliliter ) .2.2 ChemicalsThe chemicals used for this analysis show in table 2.2 Table 2.1 list of chemicals usedChemicalsDeionize H2OAzotic acid ( HNO3 ) ( 65 % )Hydrogen Peroxide ( 35 % )Standard solution Standard 3 concentration 10 µg/ml2.3 Quality Control ( QC ) and Quality Assurance ( QA )Quality confidence and quality control play of import functions for carry oning analysis of research. Both of them must be following in order to find, calculate and guarantee the systematic and random error in planning, trying, analysis and information reported. Quality control is certain be aftering for the whole research lab operation such as aggregation method and manages informations and samples through criterion processs which help in obtaining a good information, dependable and have high assurance degree. On the other manus, quality control is a set of processs in methodological analysis such as the sampling method and analysis for guaranting that the procedure is under control, which is follow the right standard process guideline. Preciseness and rightness are of i mport in QC. In this survey, day-to-day public presentation study was used to measure the public presentation of ICP-MS and its surrounding. The study contains the value of strength, the preciseness, sensitiveness, interventions and the background of environing. These standards are of import to cognize the laboratory status and instrument used which can impact the public presentation. From the study obtained, these standards are under standard given. This indicates that the status of its surrounding is good. Other than that, the standardization curve determines the concentration of the samples whether within the criterion or non. A one-dimensionality cheque was made after the standardization by analyzing the rectification coefficient of the curve. The best for coefficient curve is 1. Table Besides that, the rinse out survey is performed to do certain that carry over does non impact readings after the debut of a solution of higher concentration. This can be done in the proper rinse times.2.4 Description of survey countryBukit Larut once known as Maxwell Hill is a upland located 10 kilometer from Taiping, Perak, Malaysia. It was founded in 1888 and is Malaysia ‘s oldest hill resort. Its tallness about 1250 m above sea degree and the temperature is about the same as Fraser ‘s Hill, between 19-25 °C. Bukit Larut was the wettest portion of the state as it receives the highest rainfall in the state. It was foremost founded by William Edward Maxwell who was appointed as Assistant Resident of Perak in 1875 to function as a cool retreat for colonial functionaries from the humidness of the Lowlandss. Not every bit developed as the popular upland such as Cameroon Highland and Genting Highland, Bukit Larut retain their good environmental quality as nature has been left on its ain to boom bounteously. It is widely known by Green Peace Lover, Botanical Scientists, and Flora and Fauna Specialist World Wide. Taiping was a beautiful basin, surrounded by exuberant tropical jungle and exalted hills. Gazetted as a lasting wood modesty in 1910, Bukit Larut ‘s untasted mountain woods are filled with bird life, with squirrels and Gibbons roam around freely. There were 100s and 1000s of rare species of vegetations and zoologies which barely to happen anywhere else. This topographic point is popular particularly with nature lovers, bird spectators, twenty-four hours trippers looking for a placid pickup.2.5 Sample readyingTwenty samples from different species of lichens were collected utilizing fictile knife to avoid any metals taint. The samples so transferred and sealed in airtight in nothing lock bags. Lichens should non be air-dried in countries subject to taint such as roads and dust degrees are high. The samples need to be rinsed before being dried at room temperature for 24 hours. Then the samples are dried in the oven for 12 hours at temperature 50 °C and let to be cooled in room temperature. After that, the sample crushed into little pieces and maintain in polyethylene bottle and labeled.2.6 Microwave assisted acid digestionThe sample must be prepared in solution signifier before analysis.The samples were digested utilizing ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave system. This method is applicable to the microwave assisted acerb digestion on biological. The specification of the microwave is show on table 2.2 Table 2.2 Specification of ETHOS 1 Milestone microwave systemItemSpecificationHNO365 % – 70 %Maximal temperature200  °CTemperature control ATC detector length180  µmMaximal force per unit area30 saloon ( 435 pounds per square inch )Vessel stuffTFM TeflonVessel volume75 milliliterMaximal reagent volume35 milliliterCover stuffTFM TeflonVessel weight? 250 gThis method is applicable for the undermentioned elements in table 2.3 Table 2.3 The elements applicable utilizing the microwave assisted systemElementssAluminumCopperSilverAntimonyIronSodiumArsenicLeadStrontiumBoronMagnesiumThalliumBariumMangeneseVanadiumCadmiumMercuryCalciumMolybdenumChromiumNickelCobaltPotassiumCopperSelenium2.6.1 Interventions2.6.1 Gaseous digestion reaction merchandises, really reactive, or volatile stuffs that may make high force per unit areas when heated and may do discharge of the vass with possible loss of sample and analytes. The complete decomposition of either carbonates, or C based samples, may do adequate force per unit area to vent the vas if the sample size is greater than 0.25 g. 2.6.2 The utilizations of several digestion reagents that are necessary to either wholly decompose the matrix or to stabilise specific elements may restrict the usage of specific analytical instrumentality methods. Hydrochloric acid is known to interfere with some instrumental analysis methods such as fire atomic soaking up ( FLAA ) and inductively coupled plasma atomic emanation spectroscopy ( ICP-AES ) . The presence of hydrochloric acid may be debatable for graphite furnace atomic soaking up ( GFAA ) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy ( ICP-MS ) . Hydrofluoric acid, which is capable of fade outing silicates, may necessitate the remotion of extra hydrofluoric acid or the usage of specialised non-glass constituents during instrumental analysis. Method 3052 enables the analyst to choose other decomposition reagents that may besides do jobs with instrumental analyses asking matrix matching of criterions to account for viscousness and chemical differences.2.6.2 Reagent ch oiceMethod 3052 allows the analyst to choose specific reagents for specific matrices and analytes of involvement. Typically 9.0 milliliter of azotic acid are placed in the reaction vas with the sample, and a combination of other reagents such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, or H peroxide may be added based on matrix and peculiar analytes. Hydrofluoric and hydrochloric acids are both used as complexation reagents particularly in the presence of silicates and cherished metals severally. The usage of H peroxide enhances the oxidization belongingss of azotic acid particularly in the digestion of organics. Nevertheless peroxide may be used in all digestions, nevertheless be cognizant of the increased responsiveness with organic stuffs. The following table suggests reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052. Table 2.4 reagents and their ratios utilizing method 3052Reagent and volume ( milliliter )MatrixHNO3HafniumHClH2O2Dirt9321Sediment9321Biological9012Botanic90.50.51Waste oil90.50.522.7 Sample digestion0.1g sample of lichen is weighed out in the reaction vas. 10 milliliter of azotic acid are so added to each vas. Then 1.0 milliliters hydrogen peroxide is added for complete oxidization of organic affair. Both of the reagents were added in a fume goon to avoid the inspiration of the vapour gas that arises. As for the mention vas or the clean sample, it is the same manner as the readying for sample but non include the sample. The vas is allowed to respond for about one minute prior to sealing the vass to homogenise the sample. The vas decently topographic point in the microwave system harmonizing to the maker ‘s recommended specifications and connect appropriate temperature and force per unit area detectors to vass harmonizing to maker ‘s specifications. Both detectors allow m onitoring and controlling of both external and internal temperature of all vass in existent clip during the digestion. Vessels should so be placed in the rotor and placed in the microwave. After that, the vass heated with 120 °C for temperature at 850W for one hr. Following, the vas allowed to be cooled before uncap. Carefully, the sample solution so transferred into centrifuge tubing.2.8 Laboratory analysisAfter samples were digested in close vas, the solution so filtered utilizing 0.45 µm Glass Fiber Whatman filter paper. The solution so transferred into a 50ml volumetric flask and diluted with deionized H2O. Finally, the solution analyzed by utilizing Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry ( ICP-MS ) Perkin Elmer Series 200.2.9 Elemental analysis2.9.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MSInductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry or ICP-MS is an analytical technique used for elemental analysis with first-class sensitiveness. The ICP-MS instrument empl oys argon plasma ( ICP ) as the ionisation beginning and a mass spectrometer ( MS ) , normally with a quadrupole mass filter, to divide the ions produced. It can at the same time mensurate most elements in the periodic tabular array and find analyte concentrations down to the subnanogram per litre, or parts per trillion ( ppt ) , degree. It can execute qualitative, semiquantitative, and quantitative analysis, and compute isotopic ratios on H2O samples, and in waste infusions and digests. Figure 1 shows a conventional representation of an ICP beginning in an ICP-MS. In an ICP-MS instrument, liquid samples are introduced by a peristaltic pump to the atomizer where a sample aerosol is formed. A double-pass spray chamber ensures that a consistent aerosol is introduced to the plasma. Argon gas is introduced through a series of homocentric vitreous silica tubings, known as the ICP torch. The torch is located in the centre of a wireless frequence ( RF ) spiral. A Tesla spiral ionizes the Ar gas and free negatrons are accelerated by a 27 MHz wireless frequence field. Collisions between the accelerated negatrons and the Ar gas bring forth a high-temperature plasma. The sample aerosol is outright decomposed in the plasma to organize analyte atoms, some of which are ionized. The ions produced are extracted from the plasma into the mass spectrometer part, which is maintained at a high vacuity ( typically 10-6 millimeter of mercury ) utilizing differential pumping. The analyte ions are extracted through a brace of openings, about 1 millimeters in diameter, known as the trying cone and the skimmer cone. The analyte ions are so focused by a series of lenses into a quadrupole mass analyser which separates the ions based on their mass-to-charge ratio ( m/z ) . Finally, ions are detected utilizing an negatron multiplier, and informations at all multitudes are collected and stored through a computing machine interface. The mass spectrum generated is highly simple. Each elemental isotope appears at a different mass ; for illustration, 111Cd would look at 111 amu whereas 113Cd would look at 113 amu, with peak strengths straight relative to the initial concentration of each isotope. Despite the easiness of usage and first-class sensitiveness of this method, quantitative ICP-MS measurings are prone to matrix effects and other interventions that must be considered. For illustration, the presence of high chloride degrees in the sample will ensue in the formation of 40Ar35Cl+ , a molecular ion that interferes with the finding of 75As, the merely of course happening isotope of arsenic. Other factors, such as the concluding concentration of an acid used to fade out the sample, can impact the signal. The method of standard add-on can counterbalance for most of these effects, but this is a time-consuming attack and is non suited for big Numberss of samples. Another scheme that may assist is the usage of an internal criterion component with a mass and ionisation energy similar to that of the analyte. A combination of these attacks will be used in this experiment. ICP-MS can observe a really low concentration. Table 2.9.1 show the sensing bound for a broad assortment of elements. Table 2.5 sensing bound for elementsComponentsuggested wavelength ( nanometer )appraisal sensing bound ( ug/L )standardization concentration ( mg/L )upper bound concentration ( mg/L )aluminum308.224010100arsenous anhydride193.7 & lt ;Essay Writing Service Fully referenced, delivered on clip, Essay Writing Service.Assignment Writing Service Everything we do is focussed on composing the best possible assignment for your exact demandsTaging Service Our Marking Service will assist you pick out the countries of your work that need betterment.

Are young people feel to being too protected Essay

Parents often believe that it is better to be safe than sorry. Do you consider young people to be too protected? Whenever you come across the word â€Å"childhood†, you can sense the freedom to do everything, you can see yourself on all smiles and even you can remember the silly things you have done with your friends when you were young which could make induce a sense of humour till now. Well not anymore. In today’s world, parents prevent them from letting them go out and venture, they do not allow their children to do activities and lastly solving their children’s own problem. Nowadays, helicopter parents do not allow their child to go out and venture the world. Helicopter parents do not allow their children to go out as they are afraid about their child being kidnapped. If this continued, children would be immature and sad to say that they would continue to . To prove my point, a research was done by Cambridge University on the crime rate from ten years ago till now. The results tells us that crime rate has decreased by a whopping 86.81%. On the contrary, some critics may argue that children are immature, thus they are unprepared to face the world. But this is part of life, learning should never be obstructed and the more experienced they are, the more matured they will be. Ernest Dimnet once said that, â€Å"Children have to be educated, but they have also to be left to educate themselves.†. Therefore, this brings to me to my point that parents are overprotective. In today’s world, it is a common sight to see helicopter parents preventing their child to do activities such as cycling, skating or even walking to school. They are chained to their home making children prisoners in their own homes. This is because they are afraid that their child may contract something â€Å"disastrous† such as fever, minor injuries. Research conducted by Cambridge University tells us that children ten years ago have 65% lesser children suffering from obesity than children now. This is due to parents not allowing their child exercise. If this continued, children will get obese and may get long term medical conditions such as High blood pressure.  On the other hand, parents may argue by not allowing their children, they can prevent their children from being kidnapped by con man. This is the same worry once Lenore Skenazy, author of free range kids and America’s Worst Mom, had this same problem when she let her 9 year old to take the subway. But soon it has paid off when her son returned home all smiles. Therefore, this tells that children are overprotected. Lastly, a research done by National University of Singapore tells us that a whopping 78.69% of children, between the age of 10 to 15, who participated in the research lacks basic problem solving skills and a majority of children are brought up by helicopter parents. Nowadays, children share their problems to their parents, soon their parents will be worried and they will handle their problems. Because of that, children lack problem solving skills and become more reliant to their parents. On the other side of the coin, some critics may argue that children can pick up problem solving skills by attending courses or go for counselling. But which children will be interested to attend courses or go for counselling, and also a famous author, Paulo Coelho, once said that â€Å"People never learn anything by being told, they have to find out for themselves.†. Thus, this can tell us that young people are overprotected. To oppose this point, some critics may argue that children are naive and gullible. They make decisions without analysing the aftermath of it. Afraid of that, parents prevent their children from making decisions. To illustrate this point, here is an scenario. Imagine your 15 year old daughter was proposed by a guy. Being in a dilemma whether to accept or not, she follows her intuition and accepts his proposal. So without you knowing she has been hanging out with her â€Å"life partner†. Then one day, she comes at your doorsteps, crying and limping at the same time. Then she tells you what had happened. Then you came to know that she got raped by the guy she had proposed without you knowing. There goes her virginity. There goes your pride. There goes your faith. There goes your daughter’s future. You cannot rewind back into time to stop this. And there you are now feeling that you were a useless parent to your daughter. Back to my point, to prevent this types of problem, parents should effective communication with their children  and when they have done something wrong, you should advise them on what they should do to prevent the situation to happen again, rather than yelling and abusing them which would not bring any solution to the problem but making the problem even worse. In this way, we could prevent being an overprotective parent and establish a bond something more than a Parent-Child relationship. Before I end off my essay, let me tell you my opinion about this topic. Parents do show more care and compassion to their children than anyone could do. Due to that, parents tends to become over protective and they aim to let their child have a stress-free life. But the problem is that with the aim of theirs, their children are being over protected. Thus, their children becomes immature, becoming less confident to solve their own problems and lastly becoming less experienced. Thus, I can firmly conclude that young people are being overprotected!

Iron Man: The Real Hero

In today’s society, the concern of people and laws are not about doing good but rather having the appearance of good. People no longer care about what they need to stand for, only that they look like they aren’t sitting down. In fact, men today are treated as outcasts when sticking up for a good thing when it doesn’t have a pleasant appearance. Men such as Thomas Jefferson, Leonidas, Joshua and Jesus, men that represent something greater than what meets the eye, are scarce among us and used to be held in the upmost respect in history. Today, one man personifies the idea of doing good without needing the appearance of good. This icon is Iron Man, as a hero, and as an image of the greater good. Some would accuse Iron Man of wrong-doing in the area of justice and morality, but there is more than what meets the eye under that metal mask. Iron Man was created in 1963, as an icon of American technology and business against Communism in the Cold War. After the Cold War the focus shifted to more contemporary concerns such as terrorism and corporate crime, as seen in the modern movies. In 2008, when the first movie was released, Iron Man was portrayed as a rich young playboy who had no care for anybody except himself. Yet in the movie he undergoes a character change and when he becomes Iron Man, he changes his focus off of himself and onto others. He portrays this by disbanding his company’s weapons program when he finds they are double dealing to other countries other than America. From his birth Iron Man was meant as a symbol of idealism, something of a noble cause. So what is the big deal about some superhero being overlooked as an example of virtue? The big problem is that men are not expected to be what they should be, and their real morality is undermined by the need for an appearance. Because of this false ideology, men like Iron Man are falsely accused for wronging civilization. In reality, Iron Man ought to be held in the upmost respect as a person, and should not be criticized for his outward appearance, but judged based on the goodness of his acts as Iron Man toward humanity. Throughout his history, Iron Man has displayed countless acts of heroism. He has saved countless lives by means of risking his life for others, receiving nothing in return but gratitude. This is best shown by when he first builds the suit, not knowing what the outcome of it will be, but risking his life anyway to save his friend and himself from captivity. After that he flies into countries that are not even his own to save a people who are being oppressed by terrorists and who he has no affiliation with. Therefore, when people attack Iron Man for doing wrong by breaking laws, it is invalid because of the equity Iron Man displays through his acts of vigilanteism. Take into account when he flew over restricted airspace to go save the lives of innocent people who were in mortal danger. Was he supposed to let them die because he could break the law of flying over a restricted zone? Of course not, as the Bible does say that we ought to love our neighbor as ourself, and that we ought also to love our enemy, as Iron Man does in saving a people that are not even his own. Therefore, even when Iron Man is putting himself in these type of situations, he cannot be said to have done wrong, for doing nothing for the people would have been more wrong than him leaving them to die. Yet even with this outstanding display of selflessness, some would still insist that Iron Man still committed acts of wrong-doing, no matter the number of good and noble actions he did. They would assert that Iron Man consistently breaks the law by removing himself from the justice system and taking matters into his own hands. Even though their concern is valid and understandable, it is not relevant according to the definition of wrong-doing. According to Aristotle wrong-doing is â€Å"injury voluntarily inflicted contrary to law. Iron Man’s actions are contrary to some written law, but they uphold unwritten law. His actions do not cause cause voluntary injury, and uphold principles that no written law can overrule, that of defending fellow man, and standing up for what is right. Also, some would accuse Iron Man’s character, as he is a playboy who loves to drink and party. However, this is not relevant to the argument of wrongdoing, and therefore does not effect this topic of discussion. Therefore, because Iron Man has not done any wrong in his actions of extreme patriotism and display of what is really good, the accusations that are placed on his head as a wrong-doer are invalid. The fact that his minor actions contrary to law are outdone by the equity he displays also proves his innocence against such heinous accusations. Iron Man will continue throughout the ages as an icon of justice and virtue, and will fulfill his role as a real hero; one who displays a selfless yet unwavering strive for something better.

Management Leadership Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Management Leadership - Assignment Example How does one become an authentic leader?First, acknowledge that authenticity in leadership is a learned skill and not inborn. Second, discovering potential means being independent of approval to from individuals or parties outside the support team regarding decision-making process. Third, one has to be devoted to building one’s personality to exploit the full potential as a leader.What are the steps to build a support team?First, include an individual with whom one has a past with and can be free and open with at all times. This person is important since it is whom one can communicate the truth with only. Second, allow the relationships amongst the support team members to grow with you by expressing mutual principles and a common aim. Third, become a mentor capable of changing the lives of his or her support team’s members. Fourth, strengthen each of the member’s behaviors by discussing their reliance on fellow team members in an orderly manner.Describe the struc ture of the support team for an authentic leadership.A support team suitable for an authentic leadership is often multilayered since they include family members, spouses, close friends, and coworkers. Such a support team develops its networks over a given period, during which its members share their experiences, preferences, and histories. At this point, support team members can share truths about personal and formal issues, which creates trust and confidence within the team (George, Sims, McLean, and Mayer 2).

Approaches to Policy & Advocacy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Approaches to Policy & Advocacy - Assignment Example Citing is vital since it remains the cornerstone of any research. It sets to validate and actualize the research findings (De Goede, Putters, & Van, 2012). Additionally, it brings up an academic tone in the piece of work, without violation of copyright issues. Essentially, it is one of the fundamental principle of ethics on conducting any research. Lack of valid data and information that is cited from trusted sources may lead to lack of information trust from most organizations, researchers and legislators seeking information from the site (Green, 2006). Additionally, it sets to acknowledge the original author of a specific theory used. The legislators posits that they can make decisions with great confident as the data presented is valid. The organization operates on transparency and dedication in its work. Their researches are well published and conducted in an ideal way. Additionally, they have indicated their financial statements, hence one can follow well their financial usage protocols. Furthermore, their knowledge centre does act as a good site in dissemination of academic knowledge regarding their programs (Coreil, 2010). They does update their levels of goals achievement, and their strategic plan is clear. Consequently, the information in the website can influence other stakeholders to take part in fight against childhood malnutrition. De Goede, J., Putters, K., & van Oers, H. (2012). Utilization of epidemiological research for the development of local public health policy in The Netherlands: a case study approach. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 74(5), 707-714. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.11.014 Green, L. W. (2006). Public health asks of systems science: to advance our evidence-based practice, can you help us get more practice-based evidence?. American Journal of Public Health, 96(3),

Class work Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Class work - Assignment Example Waterfall used stages. With waterfall once the stage is over there is no going back except if a process change is followed that can take longer. In the case of Agile, where requirements are in need to change, then they are handled better with the process. Waterfall roles generally differ from those of agile. Agile does have the role known as scrum master that is a type of project manager as well as release manager and may fail to be IT specialist. Water fall does have a traditional manager of the project who happens to be an IT person always in the sense of tradition. What is needed ideally is a model that combines both the predictability as well as the accountability of waterfall approach with the agility as well as the adaptability of agile approach. An effective balance in between the both ideas could come up with a much more efficient model for software development. Mcrosoft. (2013). Microsoft Solutions Framework application development project plan. Retrieved may 20, 2014, from office.microsoft.com:

Famine in Southern Sudan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Famine in Southern Sudan - Essay Example The history of civil wars in Sudan is long and has its beginning in the middle of the last century. But Sudanese have never before been faced to such massive famine. The number of victims is varied in the estimations made by the different agencies and scientists – the limits could be presented as 100,000 – 250,000 lost lives (Creusvaux H. et al., 1999). The actions of the Sudanese government were directed not only against rebels but also against their social base, i.e. civilians. The violations of human rights became a general rule in Southern Sudan. â€Å"Divide et empire† – this principle of Roman Caesars was successfully applied in the conditions of one of the poorest countries of the world. Since the beginning of civil war complicated with local ethical conflicts, the rural population of Southern Sudan was pauperized by driving cattle out, burning crops, massacres and seizing Dinkas and Jur people as war booty (HRF, 1998). Mass murdering of civilians and pauperizing make people leave their homeland and increased dependence of refugees on the external relief. Nevertheless, the Sudanese government prohibited all relief flights into the rebel-held province of Bahr El Ghazal. The ban lasted several months and many people did not get urgently needed food because of the political ambitions of Sudanese Muslim leaders. But even after ban canceling the situation was not changed for better - the start-up lag time was too significant. People did not get not only foodstuffs but also seeds for planting (FAO, 1998).

Fundamental aspects of Program Evaluation and its difference between Essay

Fundamental aspects of Program Evaluation and its difference between pure research - Essay Example offer that view that the major purpose of evaluation is â€Å"to judge the merit or worth of the total program being evaluated, as well as the individual elements of that program." (Billings and Halstead, 2005, p. 543-544). On this basis, they state that the elements comprising program evaluation include weighing and interpreting data that is collected from multiple components of the program and then making judgments about the data that has been collected. When an effective evaluation process is carried out, then the people staffing the evaluation program document the impact that a program has on its participants, as well as the institutions that are participating in the program. According to Patton, program evaluation is the collection of information about the â€Å"activities, characteristics and outcomes of programs†, so that (a) it can form the basis upon which judgments are made about the program (b) the information and measures collected can be used to improve its effectiveness and (c) decisions about the future of the program can also be made (Patton, 1997, p 23). On this basis, it may be seen that program evaluation does not merely involve an assessment of how successfully a program achieves its goals. It also takes into account the manner in which the program is being implemented and the proceses being used to achieve this. Additionally, the program evaluation process must also introduce measures to deal with unexpected consequences and assess the potential long term implications of the program being evaluated (Patton, 1997, p 23). This is a particularly important aspect in program evaluation because the efficacy of a particular program will determine whether or not Government funding for that program will be continued. In the case of educational programs, learning is a critical component of program evaluation and is the main determining factor on how effective the program is. Therefore, the process of program evaluation must also pay close attention to

Thought Piece Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Thought Piece - Essay Example Due to the overwhelming attempt by individuals to be at par with the developments that happen as technology progresses fast, individuals may develop future shock. Toffler considers that the future shock is an unavoidable, inevitable consequence of ancient forces. However, he claims that we can shield ourselves from its most horrible effects with an amalgamation of technological control, education deconstruction, and psychological engineering. According to Toffler, (4), the solution to future shock is not non-alteration, but a diverse type of alteration. The foremost recommendation for coping with these alterations is to admit that different people will deal with the changes in dissimilar ways and at altered rates and have the public deliver contradictory levels of public services set to individual requirements. Individuals who may adjust, but require help to do so, might be engaged in half-way curriculums where the degree of change is cautiously measured or less tremendously, be part of situational provision groups upon which they can share their worries with other individuals going through similar modification related stress. In more fundamental cases, Toffler proposes that crisis therapy professionals and programs might be required to take care of life changes and events. Nevertheless, for individuals incapable of adapting to technological and social change, he suggests the formation of the territories of the past which are no-change, future-free, encapsulated zones subsidized by the public at large. Additionally, Toffler explains how education can assist to deal with the problem. He says that the education system should be evolved to focus mainly on preparing students on how to cope with the rapid changes occurring all over the globe. He advocates the replacement of old-fashioned schools which are outdated with a combination of future-orientated, independent study and computer-based instruction apprenticeship

Cancer patients and results of radiations Essay

Cancer patients and results of radiations - Essay Example The primary types of cancer treatments include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation. Biologic, hormone and targeted therapies also exist. Surgery involves the removal of cancerous tissue or tumor. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy on the other hand, are non-invasive. Radiation therapy is used to treat cancer cells that are localized, while chemotherapy is used to treat cancer cells that are no longer localized and have spread to other parts of the body. In radiation therapy, patients are subjected to high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors (National Cancer Institute i). Common types of radiations used in this treatment include gamma rays, charged particles and X-rays. The radiation could be delivered externally or internally. Around half of all cancer patients undergo some form of radiation therapy during their treatment (National Cancer Institute i). Radiation therapy damages the DNA of cancer cells in order to kill them. While radiation therapy is used to kill cancer cells, it may also damage normal cells, resulting in serious side-effects. Chemotherapy involves the use of strong drugs administered orally or through injection. Like radiation therapy, chemotherapy also has serious side effects depending on the length of the treatment, the types of drugs taken and the amount of dosage administered. Some of the side effects include vomiting, nausea, hair loss, fatigue and increased chances of infections (American Cancer Society 11). Similarly, the side effects of radiation therapy depend on the body area being treated, dosage administered per day, total dosage given, general medical condition and other treatments that are being administered at the same time (National Cancer Institute x). It can cause both early and late side effects. Early (acute) side effects are those that occur during the treatment while late

Reflection Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 6

Reflection Paper - Essay Example This also creates an ambience where markets, labour and communities are able to function in harmony. Organizational responsibility also involves social investment which has become a necessary part of any business. Transparency of business in the social and environmental context has helped to gain public trust and recognition. Today, organizational responsibility has a much wider implication than merely providing jobs and contributing to the economy through taxes and employment. The concept of organisation responsibilities has been widening over the years. According to surveys, developing a good corporate socially responsible strategy can deliver real business benefits. Three steps are involved in the process of making ethical decisions. These are: moral awareness, moral judgment and ethical behavior. Moral awareness involves identifying the dilemma in ethics. Moral judgment is the acumen required to decide between the right and the wrong. Lastly, ethical behavior means choosing the right course of action. Corporate reputation is the esteem with which an organisation is held by its internal and external stakeholders. The stakeholders base their notion on the company’s past actions, profitability and future behavior. Very often, organizations overlook the importance of having a good corporate reputation and concentrate on other urgencies. But, this does not help in the long run. It is seen that organizations which have focused more on building their own goodwill have succeeded more than others. They have considered their â€Å"goodwill† to be the most valuable asset of their organisation. Some of the benefits of a good corporate reputation are as follows. Economic responsibilities, legal responsibilities, ethical responsibilities and philanthropic responsibilities are the four components of the corporate social responsibility pyramid. Economic responsibilities

Comparison and Contrast of three essays Essay Example for Free

Comparison and Contrast of three essays Essay We all know that education is one of the most important things in human life. A person needs to be educated in order to have a good future ahead of him. However, there are people who are less fortunate when it comes to education because they cannot afford to come to school. Today, learning is not a matter of gift to share but a wealth for some because they use education to gain money and not the aim of education for people. Because of these scenarios, some people hide their feelings of guilt and pity through text – some of them are Nock, Vetter, and Mitchell.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Nock’s perception of education in his article entitle â€Å"The Disadvantages of Being Educated† is opposite from the dictation of the society that education will lead to a better future. For Nock, education will lead to dissatisfaction of man. If a man is educated, he will search for more and would not be contented in what he has. He will continue to ask for more even if he has a good status in the society; he will seek for more fame and richness. Therefore, he would rather not be educated and live a simple and normal life rather than having a well-educated mind but not contented with everything.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Vetter’s perception of writing on the other hand in his article entitle â€Å"Bonehead Writing† is odd. He used to observe people who want to learn how to write a good text, letter, or even a good paragraph because he perceived that writing is innate and not something that can be learn for it is very hard especially for less fortunate and uneducated people. Once a person survived in a writing class, it is like surviving its life in the forest. For him, whether you take minutes, hours, or days of writing, it will still be senseless if you do not have the capability or the â€Å"gift† of writing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the article of Mitchell, he showed the true meaning of hunger – not the hunger of stomach but the hunger of mind. Many of the people in America is illiterate, though it is a first world country, there are still people who are uneducated that are unable to read and write. This kind of situation made him feel uncomfortable because America is known for being the first world country. However, he focused his attention to the problem of educators because they are the one who took place and authority in teaching and educating the people preferably the students.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These three authors of the said articles have different attack in their writing but their similarity is their purpose in their essay. All of them want to impose the needs and present situation of education not only in the United States but in the whole world as well. Nock relates his essay to the uneducated or less educated people because his attack is for educated people, it is a bias perception of the author towards the uneducated people can somehow help but not as always. Vetter’s attack focused on the needs of writing. He wants his readers to feel the incapacity of some people in writing. Through his ideas, his aim for change is not thoroughly established because he made the article too light to handle and because of this, readers would take it as an entertainment than being an educated article. On the other hand, Mitchell is the most serious writer of them all. Mitchell focused his full attention to the real situation of the world, though he wants to focus on America’s problem, it also relates to the problem of different countries. Mitchell’s attack towards the educators and other factors do not make a problematic argument because he delivers his perception and notion of hunger in a factual form.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As a whole, they delivered well what they want to utter to the readers. They are different attacks but their aim are similar from one another, one of them bought entertainment while educating the readers, one takes the situation in academic environment with a light scenario, and one is serious in what he state. All of them made a revelation of what is happening, but the problem is that they do not state the possible solutions to the problems they have encountered. Reference Name. (date). Title. Publisher

Life without computers

Life without computers Nowadays, we cannot imagine our life without computers and the fact is that they have become so important that nothing can replace them. They seem to be everywhere today. Since 1948 when the first real computer has been invented our life has changed so much that we can call it real digital revolution. First computers differed from todays ones. They were so huge that they occupied whole rooms or buildings being relatively slow. They were not faster than modern simple watches or calculators. Nowadays they are also used by scientist and they may also be as huge as the old ones but they are millions times faster. They can perform many complex operations simultaneously and scientist practically cant do without them. Thanks to them people has access to enormous amount of information. Gathering data has never been more simple than now. They are not only used in laboratories but also in factories to control production. Sometimes it is computers who manufacture other computers. But not only in science and industry computers are being used. Thanks to them modern medicine can diagnose diseases faster and more thoroughly. Also in banking system computers have become irreplaceable. They control ATMs, all data is stored on special hard disks and paper isnt used in accountancy any more. Furthermore, architects, designers and engineers cant imagine their work without computers. This machines are really everywhere and we depend on them also in such fields as criminology. They help police to solve crimes and collect evidence. Moreover, computers are wide-spread in education. Except their classic tasks such as administration and accountancy they are used in process of learning. Firstly, they store enormous amount of data which helps students to gain an information. Secondly, thanks to special teaching techniques and programs they improve ours skills of concentration and assimilation of knowledge. They have become so popular that not knowing how to use them means to be illiterate. Of course except this superb features there is also dark side of computer technology because every invention brigs us not only benefits but also threats. HARDWARE Our PC (Personal Computer) is a system, consisting of many components. Some of those components, like Windows and all your other programs, are software. The stuff you can actually see and touch, and would likely break if you threw it out a fifth-story window, is hardware. The system unit is the actual computer; everything else is called a peripheral device. Your computers system unit probably has at least one floppy disk drive, and one CD or DVD drive, into which you can insert floppy disks and CDs. Theres another disk drive, called the hard disk inside the system unit. You cant remove that disk, or even see it. But its there. And everything thats currently in your computer is actually stored on that hard disk. (We know this because there is no place else inside the computer where you can store information). The floppy drive and CD drive are often referred to as drives with removable media or removable drives for short, because you can remove whatever disk is currently in the drive, and replace it with another. Your computers hard disk can store as much information as tens of thousands of floppy disks, so dont worry about running out of space on your hard disk any time soon. As a rule, you want to store everything you create or download on your hard d isk. Use the floppy disks and CDs to send copies of files through the mail, or to make backup copies of important items. RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM) Theres too much stuff on your computers hard disk to use it all at the same time. During the average session sitting at the computer, youll probably use only a small amount of all thats available. The stuff youre working with at any given moment is stored in random access memory (often abbreviated RAM, and often called simply memory). The advantage using RAM to store whatever youre working on at the moment is that RAM is very fast. Much faster than any disk. For you, fast translates to less time waiting and more time being productive. So if RAM is so fast, why not put everything in it? Why have a hard disk at all? The answer to that lies in the fact that RAM is volatile. As soon as the computer is shut off, whether intentionally or by an accidental power outage, every thing in RAM disappears, just as quickly as a light bulb goes out when the plug is pulled. So you dont want to rely on RAM to hold everything. A disk, on the other hand, holds its information whether the power is on or off. THE HARD DISC All of the information thats in your computer, so to speak, is stored on your computers hard disk. You never see that actual hard disk because its sealed inside a special housing and needs to stay that way. Unlike RAM, which is volatile, the hard disk can hold information forever with or without electricity. Most modern hard disks have tens of billions of bytes of storage space on them. Which, in English, means that you can create, save, and download files for months or years without using up all the storage space it provides. In the unlikely event that you do manage to fill up your hard disk, Windows will start showing a little message on the screen that reads You are running low on disk space well in advance of any problems. In fact, if that message appears, it wont until youre down to about 800 MB of free space. And 800 MB of empty space is equal to about 600 blank floppy disks. Thats still plenty of room. SCSI SCSI is a type of interface used for computer components such as hard drives, optical drives, scanners and tape drives . It is a competing technology to standard IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics). While the less expensive IDE technology is built into motherboards, SCSI is a technology that must be added by purchasing a SCSI controller. The SCSI card fits into an internal PCI slot. SCSI devices are then connected to this card. SCSI devices, particularly hard drives, are designed to be used 24/7 in addressing the needs of the server market. For this reason, SCSI drives are usually made to higher standards and carry longer warranties than IDE drives of comparable capacity. However, the added speed and quality come at a price. SCSI components are significantly more expensive than their IDE cousins. THE MOUSE Obviously you know how to use your mouse, since you must have used it to get here. But lets take a look at the facts and buzzwords anyway. Your mouse probably has at least two buttons on it. The button on the left is called the primary mouse button, the button on the right is called the secondary mouse button or just the right mouse button. Ill just refer to them as the left and right mouse buttons. Many mice have a small wheel between the two mouse buttons. THE KEYBOARD Like the mouse, the keyboard is a means of interacting with your computer. You really only need to use the keyboard when youre typing text. Most of the keys on the keyboard are laid out like the keys on a typewriter. But there are some special keys like Esc (Escape), Ctrl (Control), and Alt (Alternate). There are also some keys across the top of the keyboard labeled F1, F2, F3, and so forth. Those are called the function keys, and the exact role they play depends on which program you happen to be using at the moment. Most keyboards also have a numeric keypad with the keys laid out like the keys on a typical adding machine. If youre accustomed to using an adding machine, you might want to use the numeric keypad, rather than the numbers across the top of the keyboard, to type numbers. It doesnt really matter which keys you use. The numeric keypad is just there as a convenience to people who are accustomed to adding machines. Most keyboards also contain a set of navigation keys. You can use the navigation keys to move around around through text on the screen. The navigation keys wont move the mouse pointer. Only the mouse moves the mouse pointer. On smaller keyboards where space is limited, such as on a notebook computer, the navigation keys and numeric keypad might be one in the same. There will be a Num Lock key on the keypad. When the Num Lock key is on, the numeric keypad keys type numbers. When the Num Lock key is off, the navigation keys come into play. The Num Lock key acts as a toggle. Which is to say, when you tap it, it switches to the opposite state. For example, if Num Lock is on, tapping that key turns it off. If Num Lock is off, tapping that key turns Num Lock on. INTERFACE CONTROLLERS Interface controllers (parallel, serial, USB, Firewire) to connect the computer to external peripheral devices such as printers or scanners. GRAFICS Graphics controller that produces the output for the monitor. The term computer graphics includes almost everything on computers that is not text or sound. Today almost every computer can do some graphics, and people have even come to expect to control their computer through icons and pictures rather than just by typing. Computer graphics as drawing pictures on computers, also called rendering. The pictures can be photographs, drawings, movies or simulations pictures of things which do not yet exist and maybe could never exist. Or they may be pictures from places we cannot see directly, such as medical images from inside your body. SOFTWARE Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software that provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer and application software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating and managing the individual hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display. Generally, system software consists of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication (login) and management tools, and networking and device control software. Application software, on the other hand, is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the computer system. Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image viewer; a small collection of programs (often called a software package) that work closely together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger collection (often called a software suite) of related but independent programs and packages that have a common user interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software system, such as a database management system, which is a collection of fundamental programs that may provide some service to a variety of other independent applications. Software is created with programming languages and related utilities, which may come in several of the above forms: single programs like script interpreters, packages containing a compiler, linker, and other tools; and large suites (often called Integrated Development Environments) that include editors, debuggers, and other tools for multiple languages.